Track 5A 4:00

Track 5A 4:30

Track 5A 5:00

8:00 Evening Panel A

Friday Plenary Session 9:00

Friday Plenary Session 10:00

Friday Plenary Session 11:00

Friday Brown Bag Lunch Forum 12:00

12 noon

Track 1B 1:00

Track 1B 1:30

Given the great number of years involved in this project, I strongly suggest the creation of a lottery to finance the preliminary surveys, etc., plus the actual mission. I believe that state and national governments can be convinced to provide the proper licenses for such a venture.

I propose a monthly or bi-monthly pay-out with substantial cash prizes; in other words, the usual. However, what would be unusual would be that all the winners over a 3-5 year period would enter a separate pool. From this pool, a "grand" prize would be awarded, which would be a spot on the manned Mars mission (obviously, certain physical/age conditions would have to be met). I believe that such a lottery would attract all the necessary dollars to fund the goals of the Mars Society.

This lottery, if sold properly, would be a world-wide operation. Tickets would be sold in every country that allowed the Mars lottery to operate. Let everyone in the world have an opportunity to participate in the exploration of Mars, and possibly other destinations, as well. I think this concept would provide a great deal of positive exposure to the concept of interplanetary travel, which might create additional opportunities for funding.

I understand this is, but one of many ideas on how to raise money. Hopefully one, or more, of the ideas presented will allow this organization to move forward as a privately funded operation.

Edward B. Kiker
21824 Edwards Dr.
Easton, Kansas 66020
kikere@tfs.net

Fast returns on investment from a private mission to Mars should scale into the billions of dollars over and above the costs of the mission.  Even before the mission goes there will be income from sponsoring businesses: the burger and soft drink companies, the computer companies, and others which will want their logos on the mission ships.  Millions of citizens will pay to have their names engraved on plaques to go to Mars.  We must not forget the commercialization aspects for children: the action figures, cereals, model kits, scale vehicles, caps, lunch bags, and other Mars memorabilia. When the mission goes, there will be huge incomes from the advertising sponsors of the stations which cover the mission.  Approaching the planet will generate income from photography of Mars.  Once on the surface the crew can generate early returns from photographs, artists' work, poetry, songs, gems and crystals, fossils, mineral specimens including meteorites, air
samples, and perhaps life forms.  Sufficient materials of value could probably be collected in the first week of surface time to send back by an automated ship for early sale at over a billion dollars.  Scientists may decry commercialization, but governments will protect sources of revenue and
geopolitical stature.  The mission will go.

John Coston, The Power of Ten Clubs International

3743 Pulaski Ave.

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140

MARS CORP. uses a corporate structure as a vehicle to bring the widest spectrum of space supporters into the Mars Direct program. This proposal takes advantage of the long lead-time nature of initial exploration to provide "Demming", just-in-time cash flow programmability.

Problems associated with SEC "Blue Sky" laws are satisfied by utilizing the mutual investment club method.

Corporate structure mimics the democratic process; one share, one vote; providing means of eliminating "politically correct", social engineering from being inflicted upon MARS CORP. via prohibitions written into the bylaws.

MARS CORP. will:

1. Establish ownership of the first, privately owned, profit motivated, Public Utility on Mars via ownership of the "Zubrin Generators"; and, a commercial "Mars Property Right".
2. MARS CORP. habitats, for sale to investor/explorers et al, on Mars, will establish a "homestead" private property right, simultaneously creating a claim to land as a homestead right.
3. Exploration by MARS CORP. rovers will establish a rational claim to "boundaries" of contiguous property claimed by MARS CORP.
4. MARS CORP. infrastructure, once established, creates extra leverage for negotiating scheduled transport services form NASA et al.
5. Profit in the highly speculative MARS CORP. is provided Profit Driven Investors via branded merchandise, souvenirs, entertainment contracts, leases, contract services, etc.

Exploration Driven Investors benefit from banking MARS CORP. "credits", on Mars, which will become the de facto medium of exchange. Credits to establish pre-positioned habitats and life support needs.

A Mutual Investment Club program, pre-tested over thirteen years, specifically designed in 1985 by Power of Ten Clubs International, Ltd., a Delaware nonprofit corporation, to enable space supporters of modest means to participate in space exploration will be explained. This concept can fully fund Mars Direct without imposition of economic stress on any participating member.

T. A. Gunn

Transportation Systems Analyst

tgunn@myriad.net

Government sponsored Mars programs are very important. However, there are five major groups other than government and government dominated big business that have begun to be players in the quest for Human settlement of Mars. Each of these may be capable of launching their own Mars settlement programs. Must we go our separate ways, or can we work together for a common end result? What role can the Mars Society take to incorporate all groups?

A Sponsoring Concept for Manned Missions to Mars

Michael Bosch

University of Regensburg, Faculty of Business Administration

Regensburg, Germany

Michael.Bosch@wiwi.uni-regensburg.de

After the first lunar landing in July of 1969, public interest in manned space flight has continue to decrease.

In contrast to this phenomenon. other comparable high technology events, such as international automobile racing, are growing in popularity. Formula 1 racing, in particular, has developed into a highly profitable, privately sponsored economic enterprise.

Because of its tremendous financial power, Formula 1 racing is able to recruit top personnel in the fields of technology, sports, marketing and management. As a result, it is possible to achieve challenging project goals very quickly. Project successes lead to an increase in public interest. Thus, additional private sponsors are willing to put their money into formula 1 events.

This paper starts by pointing out the critical success factors of Formula 1 sponsoring. Next, a number of possibilities re discussed on how to increase public interest in manned space flight. On this basis, a sponsoring concept for manned missions to Mars is developed.

Keith Parton and Andrew Lawrence

keith_parton@msn.com

pinnacleresources@prodigy.net

Noble arguments have been presented concerning why is advisable and even necessary, to pursue an active program leading to the habitation of Mars. Among these arguments have been the desire to acquire and develop the vast mineral resources available on the planet, the need to rejuvenate the spirit of adventure that was inherent in society during the exciting times of expansion, and the need to keep developing new technology to insure dominance in the global market. This paper will look at the entrepreneurial opportunities one can expect to be developed from an undertaking of this magnitude, and the benefits that will be distributed throughout society.

Little research has been conducted on the benefits from prior space efforts. The public at large generally accepts that the development of new technology took quantum leaps because of NASA’s programs, but in order to win over a dominant segment to support a mission to Mars, a detailed education and marketing campaign will have to be designed to teach the public how the quality of life of each member of society has increased thanks to mans race into space. We will research past breakthroughs in the realms of medicine, education, meteorology, environmental sciences, and technology. We will also highlight how entrepreneurial companies have been able to take advantage of licensing programs and shared technology to the great benefit of society at large. By analyzing historical references on past advances, we will then look forward at some avenues that may be presented in the future for those who are interested in developing the commercial aspects of space exploration.

Richard Doranrichdoran@erols.com

We need to explore cheaper methods of research and broaden public interest. Why do we spend billions for research in space? People can only read about it and wish they were the privileged few who get to fly aloft. There are schedule complications, weight restrictions and many limitations.

First, we should attempt an earth based study habitat. (See drawing 1) It is not as grand or spectacular as space, but it is practical.

Second, enhance the research center with a science center. Visitors and students from grade school to college can enjoy these exhibits. This could be a traveling event tailored to an audience for donations. High school presentations will inspire children and improve the future of space.

Third, we should examine practical development. We can develop a basic colonization at limited risk and expense on the moon. The laboratory will ‘impact’ on the moon as an unmanned rover. Remote driving could deliver the rover near a location to meet arriving astronauts. The Delta-X rocket could be used to bring astronauts from a shuttle to the moon and return them to the shuttle. This has potential as a reusable system.

One last thought for our next effort in space exploration and colonization. We should do more development on centripetal gravity. (See drawing 2) This concept will also provide a great ‘Construction Trailer’ for all other future space projects. Mars would be explored from a main craft using the same methods developed for lunar exploration.

This is not the only solution, but I offer one possibility. Public interest increases with involvement. An earth based study habitat can be completed on a two (2) acre area over a four (4) year period.

Inspiring The Human Spirit: Why Mars Reality Lags Behind Mars Fiction.

Wil McCarthy

Lockheed-Martin and Science Fiction Novelist

Denver, CO

This paper examines the persistent failure of space devotees to place even one human

being on the surface of Mars. The reasons fall into three broad categories:

(1) That manned space travel is expensive -- REALLY expensive -- and that the people being asked to pay do not see themselves as direct beneficiaries. However, costs do tend to fall as technologies -- particularly materials science and propulsion -- grow more advanced. Eventually the costs may fall either (a) below the public's threshold of annoyance (c.f., Antarctica), or (b) within the reach of private organizations.

(2) That current infrastructure is increasingly geared toward "smaller, faster, cheaper" payloads, whereas manned vehicles are necessarily large, slow, and fantastically fault tolerant. If Mars colonization is a goal, preserving or enhancing current heavy-lift launch capabilities must be a top priority; we must support large, heavy, complex missions as well as cheap, throwaway experiments!

(3) That manned space travel, once seen as an adventure fully in keeping with the American spirit, is now widely viewed as a luxurious boondoggle which diverts resources from both pure science and pure industry. Three reasons contribute: (a) Because Hollywood space travel is both cheaper and more exciting. (b) Because many Americans draw little distinction between real science, fictitious science, and crazy UFO mythology -- in their hearts, few people believe in Mars as a real -- if remote and hostile -- place they could actually visit (c.f., Antarctica, the ocean floor, et. al.). And finally (c) because the Space Race is over, thank God, and oh, by the way, we won. In all three cases, the root problem is the same: space travel as currently practiced and portrayed is elitist, autocratic, and mind-numbingly boring.

With audience participation,. Mr. McCarthy will explore how these obstacles can be overcome

Mars: A Cultural and Scientific History Interactive DVD

Robert Markley, West Virginia University (rmarkley@wvu.edu)

Michelle Kendrick, Washington State University-Vancouver (Kendrick@vancouver.wsu.edu)

Harrison Higgs, Washington State University-Vancouver (Higgs@vancouver.wsu.edu)

Helen Burgess, West Virginia University

Catherine Gouge, West Virginia University

During the past year, we have developed a demonstration multimedia title, Mars: A Cultural and Scientific History, funded by grants from West Virginia University and Washington State University. We will present both a demonstration of the potential of DVD technology (storage capacity: 4.7 GB) for education uses and an analysis of the ways in which this technology radically alters our conceptions of education software. Because of its capacity to combine video, text, and sound, DVD technology offers researchers and students a new range of options in exploring complex problems in interdisciplinary fields, such as scientific education – problems which often require different— and complementary— modes of analysis. DVD technology allows us to include in Mars: A Scientific and Cultural History (MASCH) extensive video clips, animation, morphs, text, voiceover narration, hypertext links to biographies of key figures in the development of planetary research, and an extensive glossary to explain scientific concepts for non-specialists.

MASCH offers in-depth analyses of Mars as both an object of scientific study and a cultural artifact. It includes excerpts of videotaped interviews with Robert Zubrin., President of Pioneer Astronautics and co-author of The Case for Mars; Kim Stanley Robinson, author of Red Mars, Green Mars, and Blue Mars; Martyn Roff of the British Planetary Society and author of Terraforming: Engineering Planetary Environments; Richard Zare, head of the National Science Board; and Tom Meloy, a Principal Investigator on the biological experiments for the 2001 mission, among others. Our format allows students to investigate the social, philosophical, and economic values and assumptions which underlie often different views of the future of Mars exploration and colonization. MASCH offers voice over narration that describes the origins and development of comparative planetology from Percival Lowell to Robert Zubrin while allowing students complete interactivity to access scientific papers, interviews with experts, biographies, bibliographies, and password-only sites on the World Wide Web which include additional archived materials.

The demonstration itself will take no more than twenty to twenty-five minutes, and we will be happy to answer questions about MASCH and DVD technology in general. We will provide our own computer equipment.

Larry PayneOroville High Schoollpayne@butte.bcoe.k12.ca.us

Current interest in exploration and settlement of other habitable worlds and the need for a pioneering spirit should be used to create high interest levels in high school students. The best place to start cooperative efforts by space scientists interested in life beyond its current known habitat is with students enrolled in agriscience education. By encouraging the participation of such students in the process of scientific research, there will be a powerful connection established to the next generation of workers. There is a need for scientists to more cognizant and supportive of inclusion of younger people in the process of discovery and establishment of life beyond Earth.

The learning of science by doing science makes the practical application of science a reality in which students experience their own learning. Practical science advanced in western society on the backs of those who worked the land. Agriculture has forever epitomized the evolution of mankind. The development of technologies for the advancement of village societies has been lead by those whose work relates to the soil. Agriculturists have always been, and will likely be, on the frontier of colonization of the land. Civilizations, except for hunters and gatherers, require ecosystem management to survive.

In the program currently under design at Oroville High School, students will approach the study of life, the atmosphere, soils and ecosystems as dynamic systems. However, the primary focus of the program will be on life beyond earth. These will be the first high school students who seek to identify and apply those natural processes which may spread life from this planet to others. They will be encouraged to work with scientists from around the world who are seeking to discover the

requirements of organisms to survive and adapt to ecosystems beyond Earth.

Teaching from Mars

Gabriel Rshaid
grshaid@marsacademy.com

Since the Martian astronauts are probably now in school, a strong and continuous K-12 Mars education program is essential to foster interest in the younger generations.  In order to be successful and attract the kind of teachers and students that will make a positive contribution to the goal of Mars exploration and settlement, this program will have to based on challenging activities that incorporate the latest technology, including Internet based projects. Additionally, it is  important for local funding at the school level to provide educators with opportunities to interact with real space organizations and corporations. Examples of possible educational activities are :
· Internet based high fidelity mission simulations: Web based role playing simulations where students can become virtual astronauts and mission controllers of a manned mission.
· Chats with scientists: Web chats where students can consult Mars experts on their ongoing projects. 
· Mission outreach activities: Whenever a hitchhiker mission is flown, transmit data over the Internet and let schools receive that data and analyze it cooperatively.
· A Mars Club network: Through an annual membership fee, schools can form their own Mars Clubs, receive posters and other materials and participate fully in all Web chats, projects, etc..
· Teacher workshops: An annual teacher workshop focused exclusively on Mars with featured lectures from scientists and experts.
· A Mars curriculum: A comprehensive written/electronic reference with specific activities, projects and lesson plans for the classroom at all grade levels.
· Contests: Contests that include prizes not just for the students but also for their teachers are wonderful incentives for participation. 
In the author's own experience, space related educational activities are very attractive to the general public and can create media repercussion that can further assist in the objective of gradually communicating the vision of Mars exploration.

Jonathon Smith and James Bishop

A space station orbiting the planet Mars with the ability to house 18,000 full time inhabitants, equipped with such technology as Fractal Shape Changing Robots and a space elevator. Sound like fiction? Well, it is ..... for now.

Aresam(the name of the station) was designed by a team of sophomores and freshman from Sanilac County, Michigan. The design is explained and detailed in a forty page report, including about thirty pages of typed print as well as drawings and diagrams. It was submitted for competition with other student designs from around the world in the "International Space Settlement Design Competition"(ISSDC). This design placed as one of eight finalists in the competition.

Our report was structured around the ISSDC's RFP, or Request for proposal. It basically required that every team consider the full implications of what a space station required, and to provide for and facilitate those needs. We had to consider many scientific factors such as how to provide food/air/water/fuel for a population of 18,000 people so far from earth, how to power the station, and how to repair it. But we also had to consider many social factors such as how to keep a population of 18,000 people mentally sane 48,000,000 miles from earth, and how to organize the judicial and law enforcement systems for this independent society.

In our design we greatly elaborate on the above and include a limited price estimate, schedule for completion once construction has started, and plan for operation of Aresam. It goes over many major processes and contingencies that this station will use to survive emergencies in space, as well as addressing in depth many of the key technologies that make it possible.

Charmin Gerardy

1144 Adams Ave.

Louisville, CO 80027

The quest for Mars depends on the development of attitudes which deem the mission both possible and desirable, and on the training of personnel who are skilled enough and motivated enough to meet the challenges. Education is critical to achieving both goals, and powerful programs can be implemented at even the earliest levels.

The paper describes a program that was used with second through fifth graders in spring of 1997. All aspects of the endeavor were included, form the microbiology of bacterial life to propulsion systems. Students researched, designed, and created transport ships, shuttles, surface craft, habitats, bases, wind turbines, solar energy experiments, working model greenhouse, sewage treatment systems, orbital trajectories, mission parameters and experiment outlines, spacesuits, and even a remote activated, computer controlled rover made of LEGO. In addition, students created diets, calendars, crew selection criteria and biographies, Martian calendars, a sports page for a Martian newspaper that featured appropriate new events, and musical instruments designed form recycled ship waste materials for the astronauts to entertain themselves with. Their work was compiled and presented to the school and parents in a "Marsfest" event, which also featured a guest presentation by Carter Emmart. Other celebrities in attendance include Larry Esposito and Randy Davis of LASP. As an extension of their studies, the students built "reentry vehicles" for an egg-drop that honored the Pathfinder mission, including a detailed model of the lander and rover. The entire exhibit was generously displayed for the summer in the main lobby of the National Center for Atmospheric Research, where it was viewed by thousands of visitors. A reception for the students was thoughtfully provided by NCAR at which students got to discuss their choices of landing sites with a planetary scientist and also had the opportunity to touch a Martian meteorite.

Our Future On Mars From My Perspective As A 12 Year Old.

Kathleen Bohne

efej19a@prodigy.com

Mars has always been a place of wonder and mystery to earthlings, and the current idea that there could be humans on Mars in less than a decade is, needless to say, an exhilarating and mind-boggling thought. It has been one of mankind's wildest and most dazzling dreams for so

long, and it finally seems to be coming true.

As I am only 12, I could be one of the first people to set foot on the rusty Martian surface. My children could hold in their hands pictures of parts of Mars never seen before, or even pictures of the first crops grown on Mars. My grandchildren could see the first permanent human settlement on Mars and might even live in it. The possibilities seem almost endless with technology progressing at its current rate.

I often wonder what everyday life would be like on Mars. Would things be so alien that everyday activities would become strange adventures? Or would it be relatively similar to life on Earth, despite the obvious differences? Having this in our future is like having the promise of a great surprise yet to come. One that we know is special, vital and completely wonderful, but still ultimately mysterious.

There are major questions, which can only be answered in the decades to come, but we can at least try to lift the veil of mystery about living on another planet by sending humans to Mars. This will be the first stepping stone in the tortuous path to reaching the pinnacle of the human imagination, making another planet our own.

Secondary Mars Education: Faster, Better, Cheaper

Thomas W. Becker

Consultant Space Education

207-4 Enchanted Parkway

Manchester, MO 63021

tombecker@primary.net

A combination of unique factors has made public education about Mars possible on a far greater scale than ever before. The (1) Information Superhighway, via the Internet and the swift movement of private information, allows fingertip data at the push of a button. This major factor, together with a broad range of (2) up-to-the-minute relay of continued findings by NASA scientists, and the (3) availability of purchasable, subject-targeted CD-ROM disks, allows daily instruction of space-related technology education at a moment's notice.

The question of public school adoption of space technology curriculum, however, still remains unanswered. When, and how, can technology education be infused into traditional curriculum given the strength of the education community's steadfast resistance to any kind of change? Public education curriculum depends upon local boards of education which adopt state and local guidelines. Only through intense public interest in space technologies will boards of education respond to public demands for the kinds of education the public wants. The key to adopting technology education, then, rests with the leaders of industry, education and government.

The ideal solution to these challenges is the adoption of technology education at the state and national levels, from which new policies will filter down to local levels. Other nations already have begun this pathway - Great Britain, France, Canada, Pakistan, to name a few. Other nations are still caught up in the struggle - Brazil, Mexico, India for example. America will be left in the background if public education leaders continue to ignore the nee for space-related education.

The Center for Independent Study at the University of Missouri, Columbia has made some major breakthroughs in space technology education by distance learning. The Center currently offers two high school space technology course, one of which already is on the World Wide Web - "Studying Planet Earth: The Satellite Connection". The second ("Aerospace: Crossing the Space Frontier") will be on the Web shortly, and a third course (" Adventures In Space Science") is being written and will be on the Web next year. All three courses carry a one-half unit science credit.

Bruce Mackenzie

BMackenzie@draper.com

What is the Mars Society Research & Education center? We don't know yet, but imagine ...

Your niece the biology student just enrolled for the Mars semester in the closed biosphere. The whole class will follow "Mars time". Your nephew is competing in its contest to build the best Mars vehicle. Engineering schools are competing in the 2nd Mars habitat contest

there, to build buildings with the least possible material "brought from Earth". Last year's winning building is now the Mars Society headquarters, others are used for visitor lodging.

The new US president & NASA agreed to support a long-term Mars environment simulator there, big enough for testing a complete 4 person Mars base. Even your neighbor had her submission included in the "Recipes for a Small Red Planet" cookbook published by its restaurant.

You finally succumb to curiosity, and schedule the "Mars weekend" in your vacation plans: After a short ride from the Denver airport, you arrive at what appears to be Von Braun's 1950's Mars rocket high on a ridge. Ignoring the gift shop, you join your 'crew' boarding the rocket. It's large wings frustratingly obscure the valley beyond. Next comes the Virtual Reality launch, quickly followed by approach to Mars. (The interplanetary coast is omitted.) At last, you open the other hatch, and catch your first view of "Mars-Ville", beyond the ridge. (Officially known as the Mars Society

Research and Education Center.) ...

What will it look like?

...We don't know, because it is to be designed at this session of the Mars Society Founding Convention. You may contribute in advance one viewgraph of a building or funding

suggestion you would like included.

Mars Educational Resources - Nuts and Bolts and the Higher Country of the Mind

Donald M. Scott

NASA-AESP

NASA-Ames Research Center

Moffett Field, California

During the past 25 years, much work has been done to prepare humankind for Mars. In technical, scientific, and economic terms, we are pretty well prepared to go, to explore, and to return. bUt a major Mars preparation task needs more attention. This is the education of the "Mars Kids", the children now in school who will design, fund, and conduct the human missions to Mars.

The first Martians currently attend school here on Earth. A good education will be the foundation for their successful missions to Mars. This is even more true if we seek to develop the most efficient and cost-effective human missions. Teachers of the Mars Generation need resources to help them with the job.

One such resource is a new way of thinking, along the lines described by NASA's Jesco von Puttkamer: "…a new frame of mind that shifts the emphasis from individual subjects to the interactions and relationships between them." Another resource is the set of nuts-and-bolts materials available to teachers who would prepare the Mars Kids.

The paper discusses the new interdisciplinary way of thinking. It also presents a model for interdisciplinary learning called the Geo. S Paradigm. Finally, this paper provides brief information about nuts-and-bolts Mars Education resources.

Chris McKay

NASA Ames Research Center

Moffett Field, CA

Using artificially produced greenhouse gases, it may be possible to warm Mars to habitable conditions.

Dr. Julian A. Hiscox

IAH Compton Laboratory

Julian.hiscox@bbsrc.ac.uk

The most likely candidate planet in the solar system for planetary engineering using near term technology is Mars. It is second only to the Earth in terms of biocompatibility for terrestrial life, and lies within the habitable zone. However, the Viking Mission clearly demonstrated that at the Viking Lander sites, and by inference the rest of the planet, the Martian surface environment is effectively sterilizing for all forms of terrestrial organisms. In addition the surface of Mars is devoid of liquid water - a prerequisite of life. To render Mars habitable, the primary objective will be to increase the atmospheric pressure, thus increasing the mean global surface temperature and enabling liquid water to exist. The two main sources of water on Mars are thought to be the north polar cap and the regolith. The quantity of water on Mars is uncertain, and estimates range in order

of magnitude, equivalent to a layer of water over the planet: 13 to 100

meters deep.

Biology will play a major role in both the planetary engineering process and in the stabilization of the resultant climatic system. Pioneer microorganisms and subsequent generations will provide a pyramid of biomass for successive generations of organisms to metabolize, provided the relevant organisms can grow on Mars. Based upon terrestrial experiments the growth of such organisms on Mars can be modeled. To avoid unnecessary energy expenditure the introduction of pioneer

organisms and ecosystems on Mars will have to follow the release of liquid water, which is likely to progress from the equator to the polar caps. Unfortunately, most of the water on Mars is thought to be contained pole-wards of 40 degrees of latitude. A simple model suggests that although equatorial regions will become habitable from a temperature point of view, liquid water will be limiting.

James M. Graham

Linda E. Graham

University of Wisconsin

Madison, WI 53706

The present climate of Mars is characterized by a number of environmental factors that are so extreme they preclude colonization by terrestrial microorganisms. These factors include low average surface temperature (-60C), diurnal temperature ranges up to 100C, intense UV

radiation (7x103 ergs.cm-2.s-1) and an atmospheric pressure so low (6-7 mbar) that liquid water is not stable on the surface. Conversely, light levels (max of 860 5mol quanta.m-2.s-1 PAR) are adequate for photosynthetic microbes, bryophytes and many flowering plants. Temperatures in the

southern hemisphere are adequate for Antarctic cryptoendolithic microorganisms even now. Moisture levels in the Martian regolith (1-3%) are comparable or greater than those in terrestrial deserts, and the regolith may contain sufficient nitrates to support microbial growth. If the average surface temperature and atmospheric pressure could be raised by such planetary engineering processes as solar mirrors and greenhouse gases (Zubrin and McKay 1996), terrestrial microorganisms could be implanted on the surface of Mars. If pressure rose to 90-300 mbar,

diurnal temperature ranges would decrease, and liquid water would be stable. UV radiation would remain a serious limiting factor, but hardy bacteria, lichens and cyanobacteria could survive under rocks or beneath their surfaces. Generation of about 2 mbar of O2 in the atmosphere could

create enough ozone to shield the surface from UV radiation (Fogg 1995) and permit a more diverse assemblage of microbial colonizers. Algae and cyanobacteria can grow at high levels of CO2 and generate their own O2 for respiration. They can survive low O2 periods by switching to various anaerobic metabolic pathways. Initial nitrogen cycling would be largely microbial metabolism of regolith nitrates, and recycling of organic nitrogen and ammonia. There appear to be few obstacles to establishing a microbial biosphere on Mars

Track 3B 2:30

An Ecological Approach to Terraforming, Mapping the Dream

Richard W. Miller
University of Waterloo, Canada
mars@kw.igs.net

James Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis, suggests that Earth’s biosphere is a self-regulating entity with the capacity to keep our planet healthy by controlling the physical and chemical environment. Central to Lovelock’s model are the ideas of interconnectivity and feedback between components of the biosphere, and that life, when viewed on a global scale, has emergent properties. In effect, the Earth, its atmosphere, oceans, rocks and life comprise one entire ecosystem. According to Eric D. Schneider, Hawkwood Institute and James J. Kay, University of Waterloo, ecosystems are systems of organisms, interacting with one another, within spatial and temporal boundaries, and consist of processes which bind organisms together and influence the development, structure and function of the ecosystem. They view ecosystems as "evolving complex systems that are held away from thermodynamic decay by imposed physical or chemical gradients." The Earth, as far as we know, is the only existing planetary ecosystem. The physiognomy of planetary engineering is generally considered to have two aspects: ecopoiesis and terraforming. The goal of terraforming Mars would be to create an uncontained planetary biosphere emulating all the functions of the biosphere of Earth, one that would be fully habitable by humans.
So far, much of the speculation on planetary engineering has concentrated on the physical and chemical modifications required for terraforming Mars. This work has been based on traditional analytic and reductionist approaches to scientific inquiry. Silvio Funtowicz, Institute for Systems, Informatics and Safety, and Jerry Ravetz, Research Methods Consultancy, Ltd. claim that these methods are inadequate to cope with dynamic, complex systems, such as ecopoiesis and terraforming, which are characterized by unpredictability, incomplete control, and a plurality of legitimate perspectives.  Terraforming, in which humans are an integral component, is an ‘emergent’ complex system which includes properties of reflection and contradiction. In this paper, I examine methods for describing complex systems, the tools which can be employed to manage them, and then suggest how these ideas can be applied to terraforming.
 

Patrick Whittome

6E South Lodge

China World Apts

China World Trade Center

Beijing, China 10004

Shell Companies in North East Asia

The first steps towards terraforming Mars and ultimate utilization of Martian water resources will be most effected by three determinants:

1 .The surface is very cold and very dry and has a minimal atmosphere

2. The planet's interior is relatively much hotter and is assumed to contain liquid water.

3. Some water is frozen solid on the surface (e.g. at the pole but most is locked underground in permafrost layers at or near the surface or in liquid form at greater depths.

All solutions for reactivating the hydrosphere are solutions for directing energy at the surface and / or subsurface. I would like to discuss an extra technique to add to mirrors, greenhouse gas production or violent nuclear release of volatiles, which I jokingly call: Hot rusty snow!

An enormous indigenous reserve of energy to melt the ice caps (water or CO2) and to release CO2 from the regolith is already present on Mars in a usable form - the geothermal heat in the deep subsurface. The objective is to use drilled wells as channels for the transfer of heat and water from the subsurface to the surface areas.

Mark R. Northcott

Landscape architects currently plan and design the environments in which we will live in the future. Every day enormous amounts of foliage are removed from entire regions. Every year more and more natural resources are mined for energy and processed back into the soil or atmosphere. Huge quantities of landmass are constantly reshaped and fertilized over and over again to make way for an increasing populace. Each act above is done to make our planet more habitable for us. It is only a natural professional step in a progressive direction for some in the field of landscape architecture to expand their practice to include the possibilities of establishing sustainable environments on other planets.

If we are to travel to Mars there will come a need to extend their presence on the Red Planet for longer periods of time. It will become the responsibility of the profession to remain on the ‘cutting edge’ of current technology and public interest. There will then come a need to protect future colonists from the harsh and merciless conditions of the Martian atmosphere. Considering long-term study and colonization on Mars means that serious thought be given to the idea of terraforming Mars.

"…drastic improvements in the life-sustaining characteristics of the environment of the red planet may be effected by humans using early to mid-twenty-first century technologies." (Schmidt, Zubrin. 1996. P.144)

We may never see the results of a terraformed planet, but we at least may hold the vision, initiative, and hard work to see the beginning of a magnificent transformation of the red planet.

"Moreover, in the process of modifying Mars, they are certain to learn much more about how planets really function and evolve, enough perhaps to assure wise management of our native planet." (Schmidt, Zubrin. 1996. P.145)

Terraformation of Mars

Charles Hancox

5260 Blackcloud Loop

Colorado Springs, CO 80922

The literal meaning of terraformation can be described by dividing the word into parts: terra--the earth, and formation--the process of giving form or shape. There is not as of yet a universal definition of terraformation, but it can be described most generally by the following definition:

"Terraforming is a process of planetary engineering, specifically directed at enhancing the capacity of an extraterrestrial planetary environment to support life. "

The ultimate in terraforming would be to create an unconstrained planetary biosphere emulating all

the functions of the biosphere of the earth--one that would be fully habitable for human beings.

The purpose and long-term goal of space exploration should be to permanently establish the human presence into space and to make conditions necessary to permit new civilizations to grow and prosper independently from the Earth. Migration and colonization to hostile environments have been traits of biological evolution for billions of years. A recent letter to the editor of Space News titled "Meaning of Life" expresses one reader's point of view: "We should be going to Mars not mainly as paleontologists, but as pioneers. We should be going to Mars not to learn about its past, but to understand its prospects for our future."

The major steps to fully complete terraforming Mars consist of the following: raise planet surface temperature, raise atmospheric pressure, make the surface wet, change atmospheric chemical composition, and reduce the surface flux of ultraviolet radiation.

The utmost treasure with a terraformed Mars is the birth of an independent space-faring civilization and the opportunity to expand human ingenuity. A colossal endeavor such as terraforming Mars will require an undivided global commitment. It may be opposed as a skeptical, exploitative undertaking and will certainly face several ethical, political, and legal barriers.

_______________________________________________________________________

REFERENCES: Fogg, Martyn J. Terraforming: Engineering Planetary

Environments. Warrendale: Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., 1995.

Liss, Jeffrey G. "Meaning of Life." Commentary: Letters. Space News (Sep

9-15, 1996) Vol 7 No. 35:14.

s

Dennis Ray Schneider

P.O. Box 958

Round Rock, TX 78680

drdiver@mail.utexas.edu

Terraforming strategies may be divided into primary, secondary and tertiary stages. These stages have generally focused on photosynthetic microorganisms as primary colonizers of the Martian surface. The ability of any microorganism to tolerate Martian surface conditions is past the limits

tolerated by any known microorganism. Even inferred properties from studies of extremophile physiological properties suggests that finding a successful primary colonizing microorganism, microorganisms, or ecosystem would be difficult. A more likely successful candidate site for primary colonization would be within rock or below the Martian surface. Protection of initial

colonizing microorganisms from temperature extremes, surface oxidants, and greater likelihood of available water are some of the benefits from using subsurface environments. The use of chemolithotrophic microorganisms offers the possibility of using the reducing power in metallic or ferrous iron (or other potential electron donor minerals) for carbon fixation and development

of microbial ecosystems based upon this system of primary production. These systems are analogous to those known to exist in the terrestrial subsurface. The use of such "privileged sites" for initial colonization may provide the biologically derived materials which would increase the likelihood of success for using endolithic cyanobacteria such as Chroococcidiopsis in similar protected sites to begin secondary colonization of the Martian surface.

Rudy Behrens

While we may debate the early stages of Mars colonization and argue if it will be a scientific outpost, or a mining operation or in some other way tied economically to Earth, we all agree that the ultimate goal is to make Mars a new habitat for humanity. We all look to the day when there will be a free Mars, able to exist without economic ties, or justification, with Earth.

As history shows, most new territories have been settled by farmers looking for a place to call their own. I believe this will also be the case for Mars, though for some considerable time into the future, Martian farms will be some kind of controlled and/or artificial ecosystem. Perhaps they will be so simple as to only provide food for the inhabitants and a few others nearby. However, terra farmers do not have the skills to be Martian farmers. Martian agriculture must move beyond the biologists, botanists, engineers and other technical professionals and become the trade of career farmers. Where can such farmers come from?

The same technologies can also be desirable on Earth. Our present methods deplete soil and are dependent on petroleum based fertilizers. We at Aurora Farms have developed a semi-closed ecosystem form of agriculture that is actually cheaper, and more efficient in use of resources, than field agriculture. Currently we are constructing these systems in city environments and selling the food profitably. We believe the children and grandchildren of these urban farmers will be the first Martian sodbuster. Having grown up in such an environment, they will possess the skills and instincts to grow food successfully on Mars.

The paper will describe the process in greater detail and demonstrate how the skills used will be transferred to a Martian environment.

Stanley V. Gunn

20360 Tau Pl.

Chatworth, CA 91311

The Rover and NERVA programs, sponsored by the Atomic Energy Commission, U.S. air force and NASA during the period 1956 through 1973, were focused on the applied research, development and demonstration of nuclear fission-powered rocket propulsion systems. Initially, the U.S. Air Force's potential applications were those requiring the delivery of very heavy [payloads to intercontinental objectives; but, in 1958, NASA assumed the mission definition responsibility and designated first the utilization of the NTR as an alternate upper stage propulsion system for the Apollo program and later as the leading propulsion candidate for manned-Mars missions.

The depths of the programs were substantial; major test facilities were constructed at Site 400 of the AEC's Nevada proving grounds, and supporting component and subsystem test facilities were created at LASL and Rocketdyne for the ROVER program, and at Westinghouse and Aerojet for the NERVA program. Reactor fuel element technology, focused first on hexagonal graphite elements and then on composite and carbide-based elements, was created, which subsequently resulted in fuel element gas-exit temperatures of 3100 K. In addition, high pressure- high volume rate liquid hydrogen pumping systems were created for the conduct of the planned reactor (ranging to 5000 megawatts) and engine tests (ranging to 1100 megawatts/50,000 lbs. thrust) at Site 400. A significant benefit of the liquid hydrogen pumping technology, developed under the ROVER program, was its direct adoption to the liquid hydrogen pumps utilized in the J-2 engines of the Apollo program's Saturn V launch vehicles. Also, the projected heat loads (greater than 25 Btu's/sq. in.) on the integral coolant channels of the reactor assembly's high expansion thrust nozzles were satisfied by the utilization of advanced coolant design concepts and materials. Finally, the design and development of new, radiation-resistant reactor-engine system control components was accomplished. IN all, 19 reactor/engine hot tests were conducted with the demonstration of the versatility and practicality of nuclear thermal rockets. This experience based resulted from the assembly and utilization of a remarkable pool of scientists and engineers, and the expenditure of $1.4 billion 1960 dollars.

After definition of the 1^st generation NERVA Engine, the technology developments of the ROVER program were directed toward performance and reliability upgrades that would support improved design objectives for the 2^nd generation engine. The upgrades achieved will support engine Isp of 900 sec., engine thrust-to-weight ratios up to 10:1, and engine full power life of 1 to possibly 10 hours, while permitting up to 60 restarts. IN addition, such engines are blessed with controlled throttle ability from full thrust down to nearly zero thrust. Because of core diameter-criticality considerations, the realization of the 10:1 thrust to weight ratio depends in part on the selection of design power of the engine's reactor (35 in. diameter core) to be at least 1500 mw (75,000 lbs. thrust), although design power levels down as low as 500 mw can be engineered, with some penalty in engine specific weight. With demonstrated fuel element power densities ranging as high as 1.3 megawatts/fuel element, it should be possible to generate 2,500 megawatts (125,000 lbs. thrust) utilizing a 35-inch diameter core. The ease with which such future reactors and engines might be developed is dependent on the restoration and modernization of appropriate test facilities. Preliminary analyses have shown that it is practical to completely contain, and re-liquefy for reuse (along suitable scrubbers), the hydrogen consumed in full-power, full duration hot test.

The technology of the ROVER and NERVA programs remains completely relevant to the propulsion requirements of possible, near-term (out to year 2020) human exploration-Mars mission. It may also offer a realistic basis for NTR engines designed to support other demanding space exploration missions within our solar system. A critical consideration, however, is the retrieval and conveyance of this technology and relevant test capabilities to the scientists and engineers to be recruited for such programs.

Michael G. Houts, David I. Poston, and Deborah R. Bennett

Los Alamos National Laboratory

Los Alamos, NM

R. J. Lipinski, S. A. Wright, R. X. Lenard

Sandia National Laboratories

Albuquerque, NM

Thermal rockets that utilize a fission energy source (also known as nuclear thermal rockets, or NTRs) could enable routine access to most areas of the solar system. Near-term systems could enable rapid, manned access to Mars and the main asteroid belt. More advanced system could enable routine access to the outer planets.

This presentation will discuss three NTR systems: the Rover rocket that was developed to the stage of full ground tests in the 1960s and early 1970s, a particle-bed rocket that was researched in the 1980’s and early 1990’s, and a gas core concept on which some research has been performed.

R. X. Lenard, R. J. Lipinski, S. A. Wright

Sandia National Laboratories

Albuquerque, NM 87185

M. Houts, D. Poston, D. Bennett

Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM

The advent of the highly publicized Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Pathfinder missions has renewed interest in Mars exploration. Numerous architectures have been proposed to accomplish a human exploration mission. The Synthesis Group base-lined a 30-45 day surface mission utilizing nuclear thermal propulsion as a mechanism to perform the Trans-Mars Injection burn and also for earth return propulsion. More recently, the NASA Design Reference Mission has base-lined a bi-modal nuclear thermal stage with a small (~30 kWe) power generation capability. The Mars Direct architecture proposed by Zubrin, employs a series of heavy lift launch vehicles using conventional propulsion to transport the crew direct to Mars.

Only infrequently are all-electric propulsion architectures proposed, typically because they do not deliver the high thrust needed for short crewed-transit to Mars. This limitation can be overcome by using electric propulsion to transport massive elements to a highly elliptical orbit or to nearly a C3=0 orbit about earth, and subsequently have crew join the ship in the light-weight Mars descent vehicle. Then a small chemical propulsion system provides the small additional delta-V needed to achieve Trans-Mars Injection TMI velocity. This is the so-called hybrid approach.

This architecture has much to recommend it. It can be argued that this architecture provides the greatest mass to Mars for the minimum overall program cost. It dovetails quite well with potential commercial uses of nuclear electric propulsion. Further, it can reduce or eliminate the need for development of a new heavy lift launch vehicle. Since the Space Shuttle, no new launch vehicle has been deployed. Even the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle program is merely an upgrade of existing vehicles. The attraction of the hybrid architecture is that it minimizes cost, trip time, and dependence on a new launch system, arguably the highest risk element of human Mars exploration missions.

Manned Missions to Mars with the Gasdynamic Mirror

Prof. Terry Kammash

University of Michigan

A novel concept is presented for combining magnetic and gas-dynamic effects to confine a reacting thermonuclear fusion plasma. Such a device could provide a large and efficient space power source, potentially enabling fast human round trip missions to Mars.

Amanda J. Gilbert

Stanford University

dixee@leland.stanford.edu Since May 1997, an international collaboration has been exploring the possibility of using mass-based systems as an alternative to rockets for space travel. Claims of working inertial propulsion have been made many times, but have not withstood rigorous testing to the point that

such a drive could be in a spacecraft. The current project, centering around a public-domain technology invented by David E. Cowlishaw of Silverton, Oregon, has yet to prove or disprove the possibilities of such technology, but is in the process of building and testing numerous models

utilizing a mass-based system.

For any claim of inertial propulsion, a test should be conducted that determines whether a system can propel itself against the force of gravity for an extended period of time without supplemental lift provided by rockets, airfoils, etc. Such a system, a demonstrable "self-lifter", is the primary goal of the project. The possibility of the system working in the absence of gravity has been debated, and as such, if the primary goal of the project is accomplished, a secondary goal of the project is to

determine whether it is feasible or even possible to successfully deploy the system in the absence of a strong gravitational field. An additional consideration is the relative efficiency of such a system. Because the technology currently under investigation is a means of directing thrust, the amount of energy required to operate such a system is critical to its success. A highly energy intensive system could limit the technology to longer distance flights where using rockets would be prohibitively

difficult or expensive. The project leaders expect to answer these questions conclusively within the next three years.

Tony Rusi

Seattle, WA

earthflight1@yahoo.com

Recent advances in Field Reversed Configuration Fusion Propulsion indicate that a sustained research and development program on the order of five years culminating in on-orbit testing of an FRC fusion propulsion rocket could lead to the type of improvement in plasma temperatures seen in tokamak research programs since the seventies. Advanced aneutronic fuels indigenous to the lunar and Martian surface could provide the profit incentive to make mars colonization feasible

if coupled with land grants. The vastly reduced trip times could drop the cost of a sustained colonization program into a range approachable by private enterprise.

Claude R. Joyner

Pratt & Whitney

Ms 731-95

PO 109600

West Palm Beach, Fl. 33410

joynerc@pwfl.com

The purpose of this paper is to describe the conceptual design of an upgrade to the Pratt & Whitney ESCORT nuclear thermal rocket engine. The ESCORT is a Bimodal engine capable of supporting a wide range of vehicle propulsive and electrical power requirements. The ESCORT engine is powered by a fast-spectrum beryllium-reflected CERMET-fueled nuclear reactor.

In propulsive mode, the reactor is used to heat hot hydrogen to approximately 2700 K which is expanded through a converging/diverging nozzle to generate thrust. Heat pickup in the nozzle and the radial beryllium reflectors is used to drive the turbo-machinery in the ESCORT expander cycle. In electrical mode, the reactor is used to heat a mixture of helium and xenon to drive a closed-loop Brayton cycle in order to generate electrical energy.

The original ESCORT design was capable of delivering 1000 lbf of thrust at a vacuum impulse level of approximately 900 sec. Design Reference Mission requirements (DRM) from NASA Johnson Space Center and NASA Lewis Research Center studies in 1997 and 1998 have detailed

upgraded requirements for potential manned Mars missions. The current NASA DRM requires a nuclear thermal propulsion system capable of delivering total mission requirements of 45000 lbf thrust and 50 kWe of spacecraft electrical power. This is met assuming three engines capable

of each delivering 15000 lbf of vacuum thrust and 25 kWe of electrical power. The individual engine requirements were developed assuming three out of three engine reliability for propulsion and two out of three engine reliability for spacecraft electrical power. The approximate target vacuum impulse is 925 sec.

A system integrated performance methodology was developed to assess the sensitivity to weight, thrust and impulse to the DRM requirements.

A trans-Mars injection mass sensitivity to both number of engines and thrust showed that an ESCORT baselined to a thrust of 15000 lbf at a vacuum impulse of 911 sec best addressed the NASA DRM requirements. The paper discusses the conceptual design and the application to the new design reference missions.

Benjamin Donahue

Boeing Aerospace

M/S ZA-06

555 Discovery Dr.

Hunstville, AL 35806

benjamin.b.donahue@boeing.com

This paper reports on an assessment that was done by the Boeing company of a variety of alternative approaches to piloted Mars mission. On the basis of both cost and risk, nuclear propulsion was found to enable the preferred mission options.

Bryan Palaszewski

NASA Lewis Research Center

bryan.a.palaszewski@lerc.nasa.gov

As part of the International Space University (ISU), a design project was conducted to plan future space utilization. The project outlined and designed a family of high orbital microgravity environments (HOMEs), or a wide variety of space habitats and platforms, where each HOME would focus their energies on different and specific space technologies and terrestrial needs. A family of HOMEs would provide orbital havens for new budding industries, micro- and nanotechnology applications development, manufacturing research, Earth and space observation, biomedical research, and any other space related discipline. The HOME would use the space

environment for its many highly valued qualities: nearly continuous sunlight, microgravity, and the flexibility to use any area (location, orbit, Libration point, etc.) in space to create the most optimal

environment for the HOMEÆs dedicated task.

The current difficulty with space flight is the high cost of access for getting into orbit, and the costly planning and execution of space projects. A low cost method of space access and utilization will open new markets and create new wealth-generating products for all nations. The HOME

project would include all of the local technical disciplines of any nation, the manufacturing capacities of the its economy, the universities, and the health and services technologies for telemedicine. Space propulsion, combined aeronautical-space vehicles, combustion, fluid mechanics, communications, electronics, structures, materials, and facilities developments would all be uplifted by the basic and applied research conducted in orbit. A HOME can produce space power for remote sites, bolster the economies of emerging nations, and anything else you like.

Transportation to and from the orbital economy with expendable or reusable launch vehicles would be an integral part of the HOME project, as well as the ground resources to feed the orbital economy. Planetary HOMEs on and near Mars are likely candidates for the future development of planetary resources and human settlements.

Track 5B 1:00

Bruce Lusignan

Center for International Cooperation in Space

Stanford University

Stanford, CA 94305-4053

It has been five years since Stanford published a comprehensive study of an "International Mars Mission." That and two other studies by Bob Zubrin and by NASA's JSFC identified ways to explore Mars at far less cost than original estimates of earlier Space Exploration Initiative studies. What is the status today?

The Stanford study used a conventional heavy lift vehicle, the Russian Energia. Eight launches were needed in the "split architecture" mission. Two to pre-supply surface equipment for habitat and exploration. One to land and return the crew to Mars orbit. One to store Earth return fuel in Mars orbit. Two for the crew's vehicle. Two more cargo flights of return fuel and surface supplies serve as back up and pre-supply for a second visit.

The Stanford design emphasized use of existing technologies, non-nuclear power systems and international participation to reduce costs and increase to cooperation.

Today, discovery of evidence of early life forms in Mars meteorites and surface pictures from Sojourner have kept public interest alive. Nuclear space power is more distant, more expensive and less popular politically. International cooperation on MIR and the International Space Station continues despite a skeptical press. Private sector SSTO initiatives to replace the Shuttle show promise, even greater promise if they can capture the world's space exploration market. The Stanford International Mars mission is easily modified to use "Space Tugs" deliver to Low Earth Orbit by SSTO's in place of Energia. Mars exploration is technically possible at affordable costs.

Since Eisenhower and Krushchev, political leaders have proposed space exploration as al alternative to confrontation. Mars exploration, when it comes, will be supported by science, education and entertainment industries and hopefully will draw talent from a shrinking armament industry. We cannot at the same time go to Mars and support an arms race.

This year the Institute for Lunar and Planetary Exploration invited a number of Universities to contribute ideas to NASA's baseline Mars Exploration Mission. Such interaction between universities in the U.S. and other nations will compare different approaches, provide broad international understanding and may provide the necessary impetus to the public to make a Mars mission a reality.

Tom Meyer,

Boulder Center for Science and Policy

Boulder, CO

The date was July 20th, 1996 - the 20th Anniversary of the Viking Landing on Mars. The occasion was the Case for Mars VI in Boulder Colorado. Conference attendees met for four days to address the challenge of how to inaugurate a program of human exploration of Mars at a reasonable cost and to maintain it at a sustainable level of funding.

Presentations and workshops ranged from discussions of the rationale for human exploration, to innovative technologies and strategies, to management and organizational approaches including international cooperation, to concepts for private sector initiatives.

Against a legacy of rumors dating back to the Bush administration that a return to the moon and a human mission to Mars would cost upwards of $500 billion, a new "faster, better cheaper" challenge emanated from the NASA administration. The goal was to find ways to mount an initial mission to be assembled over an 8-year period for a total cost of $32B (U.S.). Of this, $16B would be the U.S. contribution with an additional $16B being provided by other countries and sources. Such a spending rate would be comparable to that for the Space Station and could potentially be sustained by NASA, though only perhaps after the Space Station was complete. This served as a baseline for deliberations by conference attendees.

A report at the conference on the Reference Mission of the NASA Mars Exploration Study Team went into a detailed technology and mission analysis that included a realistic cost projection that was more than and order of magnitude less than that of Bush era estimates.

Other attendees presented innovative concepts in mission strategy, technology, and management that could yield significant savings. For example, systems for lowering launch costs, dual use of military technology, ideas for low cost structures, and concepts for robotic support were presented. The conference also featured workshops that examined the question of whether there really were any show-stoppers and how to short-circuit needless research. A shopping list of existing technology solutions was developed that covered the gamut of mission requirements from spacecraft and propulsion, to life support, to Mars base infrastructure to show that these did not need to be reinvented. Also addressed was the concept of a non-NASA scenario for a manned mission to Mars.

International Strategies for the Exploration of Mars presents the ideas and recommendations formulated by the 1997 Mars Design Project Team at the International Space University (ISU). Its goal is to make a significant and timely contribution to the global effort to explore the planet Mars.

The 1997 ISU Summer Session Program featured a team of 49 professionals and graduate students from 17 countries, who developed a framework of international strategies for robotic and human Mars exploration. The cooperative effort of the multidisciplinary team within a unique, international working environment resulted in the development of strategies that are rooted in current national programs and that will grow beyond the traditional space community to encompass the whole of society.

The outcome of this project is a coherent set of strategies designed to coordinate the numerous activities related to Mars. In addition to the technical program phases of scientific knowledge, resource utilization, and human presence, this report addresses the political, economic, and social aspects. The centerpiece is a strategic roadmap that defines the critical factors, the necessary timelines, and the international framework required for a comprehensive Mars program.

This roadmap assumes three probable main mission goals: to enhance our scientific knowledge, to search for evidence of life, and to undertake human missions to Mars. The analysis of dependent elements, the governing boundaries and the resources needed are examined in order to identify the potential returns of these missions in terms of social, technological and industrial benefits for our societies. Strong international cooperation is envisioned, encompassing a wider number of nations, and even including countries which until now have limited or no significant space activities.

By incorporating the key elements of a successful strategy in each of three possible Mars exploration rationales; planetary science, the search for life and human missions, we have attempted to address decision makers’ immediate concerns in formulating Mars programs. Complementary recommendations for technology development and public support strategies are also provided. The result is not a solution to the Why Mars? question. Instead, International Strategies for the Exploration of Mars is aimed at providing the user with clearly defined requirements and a practical approach that, when implemented, will successfully achieve the desired Mars exploration goal.

R. Heidmann

SEP/division of SNECMA

10 Rue Adolphe Vard

27300 - Vernon

France

Rheidmann@aol.com

We need to raise the public interest and make Mars exploration politically desirable. How could International Cooperation help?

When thinking about the future of humankind, people are mainly concerned by global threats: pollution, resources shortage, illnesses, so, a project pushing advancement in related fields of science and technology should naturally be reinforced if globally shared.

People also feel uncomfortable about the growing gap between rich and poor counties; in this sense, a project presented as a means of cooperation is reassuring, and so politically sound.

Technological strength will be more and more viewed as a major factor of competitiveness among nations; know-how improvement and equalization offered by such a program should be perceived by governments as a valuable political opportunity for development and peace.

It is necessary to put Mars exploration in the perspective of mankind spreading out of its endangered birthplace; this can only make sense on a global basis.

Unreliable political commitments: on such a long-term and mediatically fragile enterprise, it is recommended that cooperation be attempted only between politically stable and economically reliable partners, based on a treaty.

Confusing and costly management: to limit overcosts and dilution of decisions, it is necessary to set a centralized international management, politically empowered.

Inefficient industrial organization: development should be in the hands of an international industrial organization based on purely technical and contractual rules (as was done with Ariane).

Can people trust us anymore about costs and schedule? Yes, if we don't oversell the program, really commit industry, and embark on time (based availability of resources and of efficient technologies). Projects should be reviewed by an independent international steering organization.

Last but not least: are we really prepared?

Josef Oehmen

Landstrasse 81

Titz, Germany 52445

j.oehmen@usa.net

Already nowadays, a great many people are discussing the technical aspects of reaching Mars, and have done so for some 50 years. What becomes quickly obvious is that a sustained human presence on Mars, done that way or this, will certainly place a strong demand on resources and manpower. It becomes thus more and more important to also address non-technical questions of reaching the red planet?

When one encounters for the first time the idea of sending men to Mars and colonizing the red planet, one is instantly absorbed by it: This bold undertaking, this challenge, this impossibility of establishing a continued, and given a little time, largely independent presence of human beings on another celestial body is simply not going to leave one alone. I can hardly imagine any cases where those thoughts, played with a little in one’s mind, aren’t among the most fascinating and exhilarating. The simple thought of leaving Earth and found a new home for mankind among the stars, an outpost of life, is enough to make one addicted to this subject. Then, the whole effort of colonizing Mars seems to completely justify itself beyond the shadow of a doubt. But as deeper as one gets involved with the technical aspects of reaching Mars, the more does it become important to address non-technical questions regarding the establishment of a human presence on one of our neighboring planets.

Fact is: The resources required for the conduct of the research and engineering efforts necessary to establish and maintain a colony on Mars will be considerably. They are, as the subject itself, on a new scale. Fact is that money and manpower and whatever other resource utilized for this purpose cannot be used to support kindergartens or schools, cannot be used to improve the situation of socially disadvantaged and cannot be used to save the poorest of the poor on our planet from starving and the list could go on and on. It will end here, as this should suffice to give a brief glimpse of the responsibility a supporter of the movement to colonize Mars has to accept.

It should be clear that the problem itself isn’t solved by discussing some new fancy ways of working with the industry to get it done without government funding. The question which is to address is the question that has to be answered before any other investigations should be conducted, it is the question of the correctness, it is the question of the legitimization of colonizing Mars.

To state it in expresis verbis:

That is the question which will be addressed here and now. As will hopefully be clear in a few minutes, the answer is a clear and untouchable "yes", if we are willingly to accept the responsibilities that come with it. We have to face this truth: If there isn’t some huge payoff of whatever kind inherent to the Mission to Mars, the responsibility of conducting it can hardly be carried.

The solution to this moral and ethical dilemma comes from what at first seems to be the most dangerous threat to a colonization of Mars: Its scale. The sheer dimension of the effort necessary to support an Outpost leaves no choice but to be a true international undertaking.

Mankind has, for the past years, reached a stage of its development where our technical abilities allow us to eradicate all higher forms of life on our home planet within half an hour. But satellite communication, supersonic passenger-airplanes and innumerous other inventions would also allow us to start a planet-wide cooperation, if we choose to do so. The possibilities we have at hand not only make this possible, but they oblige us to use our powers for peaceful purpose, simply because everything else could be fatal.

Never before in the entire history of mankind had we the chance to do anything remotely like crossing the vast of space to colonize another planet. Never before we had the chance to unite all people, regardless of their origin, under one common, peaceful goal. Never before had we the chance to act as a species, not on a timely strictly limited undertaking, but to build our gate to the stars.

With the Mars settlement we have for the first time the truly unique chance to engage in a worldwide, cooperative challenge. It not only requires a planet-wide coordination, it prerequisites the acceptance of the fact that mankind is essentially one, regardless of the place and the circumstances of birth of one of us.

It is our responsibility to spread this thought of Earth and its inhabitants as one planet and one people, it is this what justifies all expenses.

And then, as if there is need for more, there are all the other fascinations and justifications of going into the infinities of space. Just to name a few:

It presents one of the greatest challenges to mankind. Without those challenges, we would enter into a slow, but steady, decline. The function of space programs as turbo-pumps in the stream of technical innovations is obvious.

Secondly, we simply have to leave the Earth sometime. Maybe we could delay this, but sooner or later our home planet will be unable to support any more of us. We can be ready to leave Earth then, or we can pray that everybody prefers birth control to fighting for air, water and food.

And, but now I will become almost unbearably subjective, there are very, very few other fields of human activity where, as is done within astronautics, there is so obviously consciously defined what is possible or not, where there is so openly met the challenge to achieve the impossible, and where there is in such impressive magnitude created reality.

So, what does all this concretely mean, what consequences for our actions does this make necessary? I do have to admit that I am not an expert in politics, but a little common sense should work well in outlining the broad direction:

It has to be expected of the colonization of Mars that it facilitates the installation of one planet-wide agency dealing with our Martian affairs. With this agency, it is our duty to make all possible effort to create an institution which allows mankind over time to grow together, united by common goals and efforts of sustaining and bringing life to the stars, including our home here on Earth. When more and more people realize that it is better for them to place their focus on the destiny of all mankind, the impact in all fields, including the at the beginning mentioned schools and including the poorest of the poor, even the impact in these fields will be immense. Peace and freedom through colonizing Mars. If we choose to do so, than this is our duty.

Mars is not the end of a costly story, Mars is the mark of the beginning of a new era of mankind.

Track 5B 3:30

Victoria P. Friedensen

National Academy of Engineering

2101 Constitution Ave., NW

Washington, DC 20418

Beginning with the premise that the only technologies capable of providing enough power for human transport and support on the surface of Mars are space nuclear power technologies, this paper will analyze the potential problems for a Mars exploration program resulting from social protest of nuclear technologies. Mission planners and spacecraft designers frequently rely on nuclear reactors and radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) for interplanetary spacecraft propulsion and power supply in transit and on the surface of Mars. Space nuclear power, in the form of RTGs, has a long successful history in the U.S. space program as the most reliable, cost-effective, long-lived power supply for missions outside Earth orbit. Within the current U.S. faster, better, cheaper budget philosophy, nuclear reactors for space propulsion are the most attainable of proposed high-power, long-life propulsion technologies. Frequently, plans and designs for Mars missions assume that these space nuclear power technologies will be cost effective and on the shelf and, with the conclusion that their near-term availability and significant cost savings in advanced technology development, make space nuclear power technologies the enabling technologies for human missions outside Earth orbit. However, recent public protest over the 1997 Cassini mission to Saturn indicates a strong potential for significant social protest over use of space nuclear power that would drive up programmatic costs and risks.

This study will seek to answer whether social protest over, and political dislike of, nuclear technologies will present a significant barrier to the exploration and eventual colonization of Mars. The potential problems will be outlined and potential solutions offered.

Bruce Mackenzie

Boston, MA

BMackenzie@draper.com

One way to set up permanent settlements on Mars is to plan one-way trips instead of round trips.

It may be less expensive and safer to set up a permanent base on the first human missions to Mars, than to have round-trip missions. Of course, there must be some way for the people to return, if required. But, if the people plan to stay, we might save enough on their return flights to send the extra equipment and tools to set up a permanent base immediately.

Advantages of One-Way to Mars:

1. The most hazardous part of the Mars mission may be the return flight.
2. It is more expensive to transport people back form Mars than to Mars.
3. The major reason to go to Mars is for permanent human settlements.
4. Scientific investigations, the second reason, would be much easier with a permanent Mars settlement.
5. Robotic instruments can gather information needed to design equipment and plan settlements, which was not possible for pioneers historically.
6. "Opening a New World" is a stronger motivation than the "Flags and Footprints" method of Apollo.

International Collaboration as a Path to Mars & Beyond

Dave Kisor

1616 Crown St.

Clearwater, FL 33755-2811

geocat@hotmail.com

While just over twenty nations either possess their own space agency or are members of a consortium, over two hundred nations, many of which are considered "developing", are potential members in this "exclusive club". Many of these nations are just struggling to survive and some have no true central government due to civil war and other such catastrophic societal events and would otherwise find it unthinkable to send anyone into space. Any of these nations interested in joining the space fairing world could be introduced to a technology slightly higher than their general public is presently accustomed to and brought up to speed.

This would be more of a "bootstrap" in the beginning, as everybody must begin somewhere and should not conflict with the United Nations' Space Organization. The UNSO, like most UN organizations, is designed to oversee treaties and perform related functions, not to oversee spacecraft development, mission planning and other functions required to depart a planetary body. However, many of the nations actively engaged in space research are members of the UNSO. Business and academe from space faring nations would start the training and eventually hand operations over to those whom they have trained as part of a noncompetitive, cooperative agreement.

Providing the potential for a truly international space organization requires participation from the majority of nations, not simply the few nations already engaged in space flight

Larry Kuznetz

University of California at Berkeley

Berkeley, CA

n2mars@aol.com

Missions to Mars have been a topic for study since the advent of the space age. Because of financial and political constraints however, human missions have been relegated to backroom efforts such as the Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) with it's 90-day study in 1989-90. What funding exists has largely been reserved for the unmanned probes such as the Viking landers, Pathfinders and Global Surveyers. With the newfound enthusiasm from Pathfinder and the meteorite ALH84001, however, there is renewed interest in human exploration of Mars. This is manifest in the new Human Exploration and Development of Space (HEDS) program that NASA has recently initiated. This program, through its University Projects (HEDS-UP) office has taken the unusual step of soliciting creative solutions from universities.

Design Projects:

For its part in the HEDS-UP program, the University of California, Berkeley was asked to study the issues of Habitat design, Space Suits for Mars, Environmental Control and Life Support Systems, Countermeasures to Hypogravity and Crew Size/Mix. These topics, as well as the interactive design environment (IDE) have been design projects in "Mars by 2012", an ongoing class for undergraduates and graduate students. The IDE is an electronic resource that allows NASA scientists and engineers, as well as the public, to interact with and critique engineering designs as they progress. It usually takes the form of a website (in this case, http://mars2012.berkeley.edu) that creates a "virtual office" environment whereby NASA and others can interact in a constructive manner to propose and review concepts or relationships for potential inclusion in NASA's Mars Design Reference Mission. For the Mars Forum, we will present the basics of the IDE insofar as it relates to the HEDS-UP program, and a proposal for a flight experiment to determine the need for artificial gravity on human Mars missions, based on the results of our design project studies.

The Preservation of Extraterrestrial Life

Mark Lupisella
NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center
Greenbelt Rd.
Greenbelt, MD  20770
Mark.Lupisella@gsfc.nasa.gov

As we expand our presence in the solar system and beyond, novel and challenging scientific and policy issues will face us.  A relatively near-term issue requiring attention involves questions regarding the search for and discovery of primitive extraterrestrial life-Mars being an obvious
candidate.  Such a search and potential discovery is clearly of paramount importance for science and will pose novel and challenging mission planning and policy questions regarding how we should search for and interact with that life.  This paper will explore the scientific and mission planning issues along with the policy issues associated with the search and interaction with primitive extraterrestrial life.

Central to the logistical science and mission planning issues is the role and feasibility of modeling techniques.  Central to the policy questions are issues of value. Exploring this overall issue responsibly requires a holistic understanding of how both of these aspects of the issue interrelate.

Some of the questions to be considered are: Will contamination jeopardize or mask possible indigenous life forms? To what extent can we control contamination (e.g. will it be local or global?) What are the criteria for determining the biological status of an extraterrestrial planet like Mars
(e.g. for example, can we extrapolate from a few strategic missions?) What will our policies be regarding our interaction with non-intelligent extraterrestrial life?

George Smith

23 Lexington Ave. No. 1739

New York, NY 10010

GeoSmith@msn.com

A serious and durable Mars exploration effort-one capable of garnering widespread respect and support needs an intelligible and systematic framework for approaching issues of environmental ethics. This presentation proposes a practical ethical system developed by an unaligned professional, and shows how it works when applied to a particular problem (terraforming).

The first part of the presentation will briefly describe the interconnectedness of space exploration and environmentalism, then move to a critical analysis of contemporary approaches to environmental ethics. Special focuses: the notion of ethical extension; the problem of demarcation; the proliferation of centrisms (anthropocentrism, geocentrism, biocentrism, cosmocentrism, etc.); the preference for general theories of value rather than practical ethical systems; the call for a cosmocentric ethic; the neglected polycentricity of practical ethical systems.

The second part of the presentation will set out the main features of a mainstream, philosophically-justified ethical system that can be characterized as: (a) rule-based, in that it centers on a specific set of general moral rules; (b) rationalistic, in that it does not depend upon concepts that are unanalyzable or transcendent; (c) sentience-oriented, in that it makes the demarcation decision in terms of sentience or consciousness; and (d) empirical, in that it depends upon a balancing of predictable harms and benefits, and tends to push ethical inquiry in the direction of measurable facts.

The third part of the presentation will be an application of the proposed system to a particular scenario: Assume humans have extensively explored and studied Mars, including indigenous microbes found in vents a mile beneath the surface. The outpost has evolved into a permanent colony, and the colonists have developed plans for a long-term terraforming project. Should the plans proceed?

The presentation will conclude with a brief evaluation of the proposed system, from both space-exploration and environmentalist perspectives.

Chris McKay

NASA Ames Research Center

Moffett Field, CA

Robert Zubrin

Pioneer Astronautics

445 Union Blvd. #125

Lakewood, CO 80228

TERRAFORMING THE PLANETS: Mars

Lowell Wood

Hoover Institution, Stanford University

Stanford CA 94305-6010

Mars presents the most obvious example of potential human capabilities for transforming the surface conditions of other Solar planets into ones suitable for support of technically unaided human life, primarily due to its current congeniality to lightly-aided human activities on and near its surface, i.e., to the comparatively modest distance in parameter space which must be traversed to attain Terra-like conditions.

Two basic scenarios for terraforming Mars are discussed, In the more optimistic one, a one-time heat-pulse suffices to convert present Martian near-surface conditions into ones which then may be readily engineered into ones acceptable for unaided human activities, bootstrapping into existence an atmospheric heat-trap of sufficient magnitude and exploiting the materials presently trapped in the Martian polar caps and positioned within a few meters of the Martian surface. The more pessimistic one assumes that a significantly larger steady-state heat input, relative to present conditions, will be required to maintain terrestrial-like conditions. Independent sets of ways-and-means of engineering within either of these scenarios are presented, supported with first-level details. Due to the planetary scale, solar insolation is the only feasible heat-source, and effective insolation modulation – either through increasing the Martian optical cross-section or by varying the planet's (time- and frequency-dependent) albedo – is the common feature of all such schemes.

The essence of practicality lies in the minimization of mass and energy required to accomplish the necessary insolation modulation. The most elegant approaches exploit latent instabilities in the Martian climatological system to increment surface temperature by several dozen kelvins with asymptotically small albeit exceedingly potent human interventions.

Notably, it appears feasible to fully terraform Mars on a three-decade time-scale – to create and operate an actual ''Genesis Machine'' within a single gigasecond – a duration well within the lifetimes of the first Mars-men, moreover while employing resource levels denominated in millionths of the current U.S. GNP.

Chris McKay

NASA Ames Research Center

Moffett Field, CA

Mars was once a warm and wet planet, a place friendly to life. It could potentially be made so again. By exploring Mars, we may be able to resolve the question of whether the origin of life involved processes that were unique to the Earth or common in the universe. By settling Mars, and attempting to terraform it, we may answer the question of whether life is capable of spreading from its planet of origin.

Jim Benson

SpaceDev

San Diego, CA

It should be possible to conduct robotic Mars exploration on a for-profit basis. The author is the founder and CEO of SpaceDev, a private corporation dedicated to space exploration for profit. SpaceDev is already raising funds for a near-Earth asteroid mission, and is interested in the possibility of undertaking Mars missions as well.

Rick Tumlinson

Space Frontier Foundation

Los Angeles, CA

Lt. Col Scott Horowitz

NASA Johnson Space Center

Houston, TX

The author, a professional astronaut, will give his views on the human Mars mission, including such issues as our current technological readiness, medical concerns, mission risk, and desired crew composition.

The Use of Robotic Precursors to Open the Way to Human Mars Exploration

John Connolly

NASA Johnson Space Center

Houston, TX

NASA’s current robotic Mars exploration program can and should be used as a means of demonstrating key technologies and resolving environmental unknowns to prepare the way for human Mars exploration.

SSTO, Pathway to Mars?

Bruce Lusignan

Center for International Cooperation in Space

Stanford University

Stanford University has completed the third iteration design of a Single Step to Orbit Launch system to replace NASA's Shuttle.

The aerospace industry is aware that the true Singe-Stage-to-Orbit vehicles, whether Vertical or Horizontal take-off, or Vertical or Horizontal landing, do not get useful payload to orbit, despite large research monies spent on studies and tests. What does work is a rocket planet that starts out fully fueled at 40,000 fee and has wings to assist in the flight from there to orbit. The rocket equations show you can get a useful payload (9 Metric Tons) to Low Earth Orbit or (25 Metric Tons) to Low Earth Orbit with an apogee kick stage. Three configurations of such single Step to Orbit space planes are feasible. One is Kelly Enterprise's, where the fully fueled rocket plane is towed to altitude by a tow plane. One is suggested in a Hotl proposal, where the fueled space plane is flung from the back (or dropped from the belly) of a carrier plane. A third follows Mitch Clapp's Black Horse concept, where the rocket plane takes off with jet engines and payload, then meets a tanker plane to load on the liquid hydrogen and then flies on to orbit.

The air-fueling configuration offers significant advantages in development and testing and more viable abort scenarios. The Stanford SsTO is based on the air-fueling concept using the largest Antonov cargo plane to carry the liquid oxygen.

The SsTO can deliver 15 metric tons to Low Earth Orbit using a parabolic flight and apogee circularizing motor. The circularizing motor remains with the fuel forming a "space tug" that can be used to support deep space exploration. The tug costs about $25 million including the hardware and SsTO launch.

The design of Mars Direct by Bob Zubrin, the Base Line study by NASA's Johnson Space flight Center, and the Stanford-Russian Human Mars mission use a number of cargo flights to Mars followed by the exploration crew. Less than 40 space tug modules at a total cost under $1 billion, would propel the five to seven mars vehicles needed for these missions. The Mars Missions should be reviewed based on the availability of such low cost in orbit fuel modules. We support the suggestions that NASA stimulate a private international consortium to develop a SsTO by committing to purchase fuel modules in orbit to support human Mars missions.

Scott Lowther

Pioneer Astronautics

445 Union Blvd. #125

Lakewood, CO 80228

A large number of space launch boosters have been proposed throughout the years, many of which were designed for or were applicable to launching components required for manned missions to Mars. In this paper, past and current designs for booster vehicles needed to perform manned Mars missions are examined and compared, with emphasis on current and very recent concepts. Included are such designs as: von Braun’s 1952 Ferry Rocket, the Saturn V and various Saturn V derived vehicles, various Nova studies from the 1960’s, the Soviet N-1, the Soviet Energia, various Shuttle Derived Vehicles (such as Shuttle-C, Aries and similar designs) , the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle, VentureStar, StarBooster 400, StarBooster 1800 and Magnum. Vehicle designs are described and shown and capabilities are compared, along with any manned Mars mission modes originally proposed for each booster. The utility of each booster for Mars piloted and cargo missions at current technological levels are examined.

Three baseline Mars missions based on modern technology are also to be briefly described: A Mars Direct architecture, the current NASA-JSC Design Reference Mission architecture and a stereotypical large on-orbit assembled single vehicle. These missions are then modified for each booster, showing the modifications required, if any, to the mission in order to utilize a certain launch system. The results are then compared and contrasted. Conclusions are drawn based upon these results, with certain boosters showing a higher level of ability and confidence.

Gary McPeters

The exploration of Mars has been conducted exclusively by governments using launch vehicles developed by government. In the future, this exploration may be conducted by private groups using launch vehicles developed by private industry. This new generation of launches is being developed by familiar names like Lockheed-Martin and newcomers like Kistler Aerospace, Pioneer Rocket Plane, and Rotary Rocket. These vehicles will be horizontally and vertically landed, manned, unmanned rockets and jet powered, single and multi-staged. But they will share the attributes of increased launch rates, quick turnarounds and lower costs. These characteristics will change the way we explore Mars. Cheaper launch costs mean private groups will be able to launch probes to Mars. Money saved on launches can instead be spent on payloads. More launches offered by more companies mean more payloads can be sent in every launch window to Mars. Instead of one or two probes, we could get fleets.

Further ahead, the advent of manned launchers and single stage to orbit vehicles will rapidly open the possibilities of large scale Mars exploration. Single stage to orbit launchers will offer the most exciting uses when they become operational. If they are refueled in orbit, their Delta-V capacity will enable them to take their payloads directly to Mars. Since they are designed to use aero-braking to land on Earth, they will be able to use it at Mars, increasing their payload capacity even more. These reliable, operational vehicles could then become a new class of Mars

transports without costly design of new vehicles.

This and more will be made possible by the new generation of launch vehicles.

K. R. Sridhar,Space Technologies LaboratoryThe University of Arizona

Tucson, Arizona

krsridhar@mail.arc.nasa.gov

Generation of oxygen on Mars for life support and propulsion needs will have a significant impact on reducing the cost and launch mass of human missions to Mars as well as robotic sample return missions. This talk will address the solid oxide electrolysis technique for generating oxygen from carbon dioxide. In this solid state process, carbon dioxide is decomposed to carbon monoxide and oxygen, and the oxygen thus produced is separated electrochemically by a nonporous ceramic

electrolyte. Laboratory level demonstrations have shown that the process is robust, and will operate in Mars simulant atmosphere for extended periods (tested for over six months) with no noticeable

degradation in performance. The principle of operation, mass and energy needs and its potential role in Mars exploration will be discussed.

A proof-of-concept electrolyzer will fly on the 2001 Lander to Mars. An integrated Mars Oxygen Generator System (OGS) concept which is part of the Mars ISPP Precursor (MIP) flight experiment is presented. The electrolyzer is based on a planar zirconia disk configuration. The proposed packaging of the electrolyzer within a 100 mm diameter and 100 mm high cylindrical container limits heat losses to less than 10W. The complete OGS includes flow control and sensing hardware. The design details of the payload will be presented. This will be the first payload ever to generate resources of use to humans from planetary materials

Brian M. Frankie, P.E.

Dr. Anthony C. Muscatello

Pioneer Astronautics

445 Union Blvd. #125

Lakewood, CO 80228

While in situ propellant production (ISPP) is widely recognized as one of the key technologies required for the exploration and eventual settlement of Mars, most ISPP concepts are troubled by the "hydrogen question." The majority of ISPP concepts require some form of hydrogen feedstock to the process, as hydrogen is required in most liquid fuels, but is not easily available on Mars. Hydrogen transport as water, ammonia, or methane is possible but limits the mass leverage of the ISPP system, so most concepts have proposed transporting liquid hydrogen to Mars. Liquid hydrogen is a low density extreme cryogen, and has an annoying tendency to leak, which increases the difficulty of transport. This paper examines options for producing liquid fuels that have low hydrogen content, which both helps alleviate the difficulties of hydrogen transport, and increases the mass leverage of the ISPP system. In addition, as the human presence on Mars expands beyond the initial exploration phase, low hydrogen content compounds will have additional uses as chemical feedstocks. The low hydrogen content fuels of primary interest, in order of interest, are aromatics, olefins, and high molecular weight paraffins.

Evgeny ShafirovichInstitute of Structural Macrokinetics,Russian Academy of Sciences

Chernogolovka 142432, Russia

The present paper deals with the concept of a rocket using Martian carbon dioxide as an oxidizer and metals or their hydrides as fuel. Calculated performance characteristics of the rocket and the known data on ignition and combustion of metals in CO2 are analyzed. It has been shown that beryllium hydride ensures the highest specific impulse. However, the lack of information on combustion of metal hydrides in CO2 and, on the other hand, the fairly good ignition and combustion characteristics for magnesium with CO2 allow the conclusion that currently only magnesium fuel can be considered as fitting for rocket engines using CO2. Possible design types of the CO2/metal rocket engine are considered. Hopper and sample return missions with visiting several sites on Mars surface are analyzed. It has been shown that such missions become advantageous if the CO2/metal engine is used. The use of Martian CO2 as an oxidizer in rockets appears as an attractive way to long range mobility on Mars. The hopper mission using CO2/metal propulsion might be considered as a next significant leap forward compared to the performed Viking and Pathfinder missions. Results of recent experimental studies on ignition and combustion of single levitated particles of Mg and Mg-Al alloy in carbon dioxide [1] are discussed from the standpoint of Mars propulsion applications.

REFERENCE[1] Legrand, B., Shafirovich, E., Marion, M., Chauveau, C., and Gökalp, I., "Ignition and combustion of levitated magnesium particles in carbon dioxide," 27th International Symposium on Combustion, August 2-7, 1998, Boulder, CO, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, in press.

R.L. Ash, T. Dinh, S. Popovic, and L. Vuskovic

Old Dominion University

Norfolk, VA 23529

Studies starting in the late seventies have shown that Mars' atmosphere can be use as a feedstock for oxygen production using simple chemical processing systems during early phases of the Mars exploration program. This approach has been recognized as one of the most important in-situ resource utilization (ISRU) concepts for enabling future round trip Mars missions. We have been working on the development of capacitive and inductive radio frequency (RF) discharges for oxygen production. The capacitive RF discharges increased the conversion efficiency of carbon dioxide into carbon monoxide and oxygen at lower temperatures and were combined with oxygen separation using a silver membrane, which acted as one of the electrodes in the discharges. The discharges were operated at pressures typical for Martian atmospheric conditions. Mars atmospheric simulant gas was used, which contained practically exact proportions of carbon dioxide, nitrogen and argon as in the actual Martian atmosphere. The results of computer modeling, confirmed by experiment, show that the chemical composition of Martian atmospheric gas is changed in the RF discharge. The Mars simulant gas was transformed into the mixture containing large proportions of atomic and molecular oxygen, carbon monoxide, and proportionally smaller amounts of carbon dioxide and other gases. The residual gas, after partial separation of oxygen, has a potential for further utilization as a "dirty" carbon monoxide fuel. The property of the RF discharge to trap and enable natural removal of dust particles is also recognized and elaborated. The systems based on RF discharges will be compared with other ISRU oxygen extraction methods with respect to size, mass, power, efficiency and oxygen quality.

Current Progress in Water Reclamation Technology

Dr. Bradley S. Tice

Director and Institute Professor of Chemistry

Advanced Human Design

P.O. Box 2214

Cupertino, CA 95015-2214

The presentation is a review of the current status on research conducted at Ames-NASA Research Center in the area of water reclamation technologies. Details in the following areas of research will be explored.

1. Advanced Oxidant Delivery Screening
2. Catalyst Screening
3. Development of Special Catalysts

An overview of future research as applied to human habitation of Mars and the Moon will conclude this session.

Donald Barker, M.S., M.A.

George James, Ph.D.

Gregory Chamitoff, Ph.D.

gregory.e.chamitoff1@jsc.nasa.gov

Like the Earth, Mars is a planet with an abundance of natural resources, including accessible materials that can be used to support human life and to sustain a self sufficient Martian outpost. Major in situ resources required by the initial inhabitants and explorers include water, atmospheric and material consumables, and various energy and fuel reservoirs. This paper examines the potential for supporting the first manned mission with the objective of economically achieving self-sufficiency through well understood resource exploration and identification, followed by a program of rigorous scientific research aimed at extending and expanding in situ resource utilization capabilities. The potential for initially extracting critical resources from the Martian environment is examined, and the scientific investigations required to identify additional resources in the atmosphere, on the surface, and within the subsurface are discussed. The current state of knowledge regarding the planet's geomorphology is examined, particularly as it pertains to the question of locating water and other useful resources. Questions of scientific necessity and feasibility are examined with respect to the concepts of resource utilization and habitability. Throughout the next decade, unmanned precursor missions, including Pathfinder, Mars Global Surveyor, and the Mars 98, 2001, 2003 and 2005 missions, can and should be targeted and utilized to construct an initial resource knowledge database that will serve to support the selection of an initial manned landing site. Considerations are presented for determining the optimal landing site based on the best combination of the known and potential existence and accessibility of Martian resources. The primary goal of achieving self-sufficiency on Mars would accelerate the development of Human colonization beyond Earth, while providing a robust and permanent Martian base from which humans could explore and conduct long term research on the evolution of planets, the solar system, and life itself.

Phobos on the CheapGeorge William HerbertRetro Aerospace

gherbert@crl.com

Prior manned Mars exploration architectures have proposed, with good reason, that manned exploration proceed directly to the surface of Mars once we begin sending humans to the Mars system. Phobos on the Cheap proposes instead that we take a slow approach, incrementally building up towards an eventual manned landing. First, the propulsion area is addressed by providing a reusable low thrust deep-space propulsive ion drive tug disguised as a commercial transfer stage product for LEO to GEO missions. Once that vehicle has been flown and demonstrated, it begins being used for unmanned Mars missions, as it reduces the cost of delivering payloads to Mars substantially. When the tug has been proven in deep space applications, we expand the program to create a manned base on Phobos, suitable for long term habitation and tele-operation of Mars surface rovers, giving many of the benefits of humans on the surface with few of the costs. Finally, after the Phobos base operation has been built up and extensive robotic and tele-operated surveys have been completed, we develop a surface landing program sending humans to explore the most interesting sites identified in the tele-operated science program. Each of the steps independently is a low risk, low cost step, but together they march towards an ongoing, sustainable, and affordable manned Mars exploration campaign.

Track 1C 4:30

Polar Options for a First Mars Expedition

Geoffrey Landis

Ohio Aerospace Institute

NASA Lewis Research Center

21000 Brookpark Rd.

Cleveland, OH 44135

A first Mars expedition will be greatly facilitated by use of in-situ Mars resources for producing return propellant. While most discussions of Mars resource availability assume that a Mars mission will target an equatorial or mid-latitude site, I argue here that there are significant advantages to a polar site. Polar regions have two distinct advantages over lower latitude sites.

Polar regions facilitate easy access to mars volatiles in the form of frozen water and carbon dioxide. This is important not only for production of rocket fuel for the return to Earth, but for production of fuel for local mobility. A polar expedition would not have to bring hydrogen from Earth to produce propellant, but could extract hydrogen by simply melting available ice.

Also, during the Mars summer, both the Sun and the Earth are constantly above the horizon. This allows continuous power generation without the requirement for heavy power storage systems, and allows direct communications to Earth.

While a polar site may be less desirable for geology, since the terrain is ice-covered, geological studies of non-ice-covered terrain can easily be accomplished by use of a long-range rover, and there are unique exploration possibilities to gather information available from polar science which are not found elsewhere on the planet.

Martian Law: The Case for A Global Democracy

Thomas Quinn

Evolutionary Theory Outreach Group

P.O. Box 510373

New Berlin, WI 53151

Homo sapiens will soon enter into a new era when we colonize Mars and become a multi-planet species. This event will trigger some tough legal questions, but perhaps none will be as difficult as who should rule Mars. Although many possibilities exist, there are some solutions that appear to be better than others. A detailed comparison of the possible options will be presented within the historical context of past colonization events on Earth and their outcomes. The analysis suggests that the best solutions for the future inhabitants of Mars would be the following:

. Martian citizenship should be freely granted to all colonists on Mars.

. A single, global democracy for the entire planet should be established.

. Local decision should be decided by the individual colonies.

The simple precept that "Martians should rule Mars" would likely prevent potential problematic outcomes, like war or serfdom, from occurring. Mars should be a politically independent entity; however, this autonomy will be somewhat limited as it seems that Martians would remain economically dependant on Earth for many supplies, materials, and resources. Until permanent colonies can be established on Mars, a "hands-off" policy is the most just thing to do. I present a prototype for a Mars treaty, based on The Antarctic Treaty of 1959, for future discussion on the topic. Using Antarctica as a model, this treaty would be designed to keep Mars in the public domain for research and exploration while protecting the planet from the tragedy of the commons.

Dr. Edward L. Hudgins

CATO Institute

Washington DC

ehudgins@cato.org

A country's economic development and utilization of its resources depend foremost on the country's economic, legal and political regimes. The fall of communism and state-directed systems in poorer countries seem to herald the victory of the free market. That regime gives maximum incentives for individuals to utilize the ultimate source of values, the human mind, to create wealth. But misunderstandings about markets have led to rough transitions.

The model for Mars is not the Antarctic Treaty nor the Law of the Sea Treaty. These versions of the statist regimes now rejected by most countries would ensure that Martian resources remain unexploited. In fact, flawed elements of the Outer Space Treaty and the Intelsat Agreement already have slowed the private sector space development.

Mars will need an economic/legal regime based on property rights and contacts. Initial planetary development will depend on consortia arrangements that serve immediate needs. But consortia must allow for a transition to a system with market prices, the only efficient way to allocate resources, and with incentives for entrepreneurial innovation.

Public health and safety functions, currently provided very poorly by governments on Earth, might be guaranteed more efficiently by incorporating their goals into initial consortia rules and contracts. The extensive research and insights market thinkers in past three decades can help Mars avoid the mistakes that all Earth governments now are trying to correct.

Attempts by merchants in the Age of Exploration 500 years ago profit though trade in a world without law gave rise to innovative market institutions like double-entry bookkeeping and insurance (a means to share risk). The development of Mars, if done right, will not only be yield advances in science and technology, but in free, civil institutions as well.

Track 2C 2:00

Alex Lightman

1431 Ocean Ave., #419

Santa Monica, CA 90401

alex@hollyworlds.com

Who owns Mars? Currently, no one does, or everyone, depending on how one interprets two different UN Treaties. The natural consequence of this is that Mars will remain untouched by human hands, or feet, for the foreseeable future, since the cost of a manned mission will be comparable to the largest projects in history. As Americans and others around the world view the latest images beamed back to earth from Mars Surveyor, now is the time to ask whether all we want from the red planet are pictures.

The United States should claim Mars in the near future, or ask to become a trustee for Mars until it can be self-governing. In weighing the advantages, disadvantages, justifications and probable consequences, we may find that there are few actions that could be taken by the United States with such profoundly beneficial consequences. America could increase its wealth, power, influence, security, and confidence in the future. The cost would be virtually insignificant, a rounding error in our $1.7 trillion federal budget. With an aggregate stock market value of over $15 trillion, and a national valuation of almost $70 trillion, development of Mars is well within America's capabilities. The catalyst will likely be property rights, the same catalyst for the rapid rise of both Europe and the United States compared to their contemporaries in the middle ages and over the last two centuries.

What are the obstacles? Basically, one article in the first UN space treaty, and two in the second. Though the US ratified the first treaty, it has not ratified the second, and neither have over 170 other nations.

These two paragraphs are the only 'obstacles' to America's claim of sovereignty. Comparing these agreements to the benefits that will accrue to 265 million Americans, and eventually to the other 5 billion or residents of this planet, we may come to the conclusion that the US government should either ignore these provisions, or give the one year notice that we are withdrawing from the 1967 treaty (the only one we have ratified) which the treaty offers any signatories. Just say "no" to pointless UN limitations. Pass a law permitting Americans to file claims to land and other resources of Mars, via the Patent Office unless a specialized agency is set up.

The case for American ownership of Mars consists in part of approximately 24 reasons, including several of the following:

Why not claim Mars for the United States? If Mars were an American possession, the images that we can download from the Internet would take on new meaning. We might imagine that we are looking at a future state, a place to visit, develop mining and other new businesses, and develop the next phase of human civilization.

Mars offers the opportunity for the US and world powers to establish significant cooperation in exo-industrialization and exo-commercialization. A new set of 'Space Law' requirements is proposed for human settlement, scientific discovery, and industrial explorations as a result of strategic overlays of international cooperation and evolutionary growth of bottom-up technical validation of conditions favorable for international Martian exploration. A closer evaluation of needed laws clarifying "sovereign territory" versus the "common heritage of mankind" is examined according to international and politically determined agendas supported by technical trade studies so as to avoid confusing and wasteful uses of planetary resources and technology that may cross the boundaries of national logic and security.

Here an approach is applied to the task of developing a robust set of comprehensive legal requirements for the major system elements and mission scenarios necessary for utilizing potential energy and mineral resources. Commercial activities in outer space will function in a way similar to that of the Law of the Seas, where the resources in outer space are open to all. The Law of the Seas has often been stated as the guidelines of international space law. Space must begin to be defined as either res communis or res commercium as interplanetary activity increases in the 21st Century. In usage of the former form, we would envision the possibility of international ownership of satellites, exploration and development through an international regime or a Cosmic Development Corporation (CODEC).

Natural Transfer of Viable Microbes in Space Part 1: From Mars To Earth And Earth to Mars
Curt MILEIKOWSKY (a), Francis A. CUCINOTTA (b), John W. WILSON (c), Brett GLADMAN (d) Gerda HORNECK (e), Lennart LINDEGREN (f), Jay MELOSH (g),Hans RICKMAN (h), Mauri VALTONEN (i)
(a)	KTH (Royal Institute of Technology), Stockholm, Sweden
(b)	NASA Johnson Space Research Center, Houston, TX
(c)	NASA Langley Space Research Center, Newport News, VA
(d)	Canadian Institute for Theoretical Physics, University of Toronto
(e)	DLR (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt), Cologne, Germany
(f)	Dept. of Astronomy, Lund University, Sweden
(g)	Lunar and Planetary Lab., University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
(h)	Astronomical Observatory, Uppsala University, Sweden
(i)	Observatory, Turku University, Finland.
 
The possibility and probability of natural transfer of viable microbes from Mars to Earth and Earth to Mars travelling in meteoroids is investigated, including : radiation protection against the Galactic Cosmic Ray nuclei and the Solar Rays ; dose rates as a function of the meteorite's radial column mass (radius x density), combined with dose-rates generated by natural radioactivity within the meteorite ; and survival curves for some bacterial species using NASA's HZETRN transport code other factors affecting microbe survival : vacuum ; central meteorite temperatures at launch, orbiting and arrival ; pressure and acceleration at launch ; spontaneous DNA decay ; metal ion migration mean sizes and numbers of unshocked meteorites ejected and percentage falling on Earth, using current semi-empirical results viable flight times for the microbe species B. subtilis and D. radiodurans R1 The conclusion is that if microbes existed or exist on Mars, viable transfer to Earth is not only possible but also highly probable, due to the dense traffic of billions of Martian meteorites which have fallen on Earth since the dawn of our planetary system. Earth-to-Mars transfer is also possible but at a much lower frequency. 

Experimental Investigation of the Survival of Bacillus Subtilis Spores and Vegetative Cells and of Deinococcus Radiodurans, Accelerated with Short Rise Times to Peak Accelerations of 11 500´g, 17 700´g and 33 800´g

Curt MILEIKOWSKY
Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
mil.behr@iprolink.ch

Eva LARSSON
Division of NBC Defense, FOA, Sweden

Bengt EIDERFORS
FOA National Defence Research Establishment, Sweden

Since it is now generally thought that Mars had an atmosphere, a lot of liquid water and favorable conditions for life early, it is not improbable that life appeared there before it did on Earth. If so, an interesting question is : could life have been transported from Mars to Earth inside ejecta meteoroids expelled into space by sizeable asteroids or comets impacting Mars, and by some percentage of the meteoroids later landing on Earth ? Early microbes would then have had to survive the jerk acceleration of ejecta launch of the order of 10,000´g or more with rise times £ 30ms, a thousand times faster than that in ultracentrifuges for the same acceleration. An experiment to check this, presented here, was performed at FOA's acceleration test facility using three projectiles fired to 11,500´g, 17,700´g and 33,800´g respectively and with three types of microbe on each projectile: Deinococcus radiodurans R1 and Bacillus subtilis 168 in spore and vegetative form. The microbiological loading of the bacteria before the shots , sampling and counting of the surviving microbes was done by the FOA Defense Research Establishment, Umeå, Sweden. The results showed that a large number of each type of microbe survived each of the three shots.

Sense of the Sacred: The Martian Landscape in Visual Art

Prof. Richard Poss
University of Arizona
rposs@u.arizona.edu

the Martian landscape reveal much about our aspirations for the red planet.  The art of space exploration and colonization shows us deeper dimensions of what we are doing and why, of 
the human need to explore and the social drive to expand  beyond the earth.  

Since the Middle Ages, visual representations of landscape and the heavens have offered important clues to mankind's role in the cosmos.  Painting especially imparts transcendent values through objects rendered in oil, tempera, or fresco.  A few examples of works of art from the "traditional" canon of art history will be examined briefly to provide a methodological context, then we will 
examine visual art directed towards exploration, colonization, and relationships between explorers and the natural environment, and the spiritual dimensions of the great enterprise.  

From medieval manuscript illustration to contemporary space painting, this optimistic and 
forward-looking slide presentation will also serve as a survey of visual art related to Mars.

Inflatable Structures for a Permanent Martian Colony

Marvin E. Criswell and Jenine E. Abarbanel
Center for Engineering Infrastructure and Sciences in Space (CEISS)
Colorado State University
jenine@lamar.ColoState.EDU

A permanent human-tended Martian base requires a life support system housed within a structure providing a shirtsleeve environment for human activity.  Given the current cost of transportation from Earth, the driving force dictating the design of a Martian structure is mass.  Any structure on
Mars is a pressure vessel due to the difference between the external pressure of 0.6 kPa (0.09 psi) and internal pressure, ranging between69 kPa and 101.3 kPa (10 psi and 14.7 psi), produced by the artificial atmosphere necessary to support life.  The most efficient pressure vessel for a planetary surface habitat is an inflatable structure made of thin membranes.  Discussion of the requirements of a Martian permanent habitable structure is presented as well as conceptual designs for possible inflatable structures.

SCDTL Calendar and Clock for Mars

Lance Latham
Resource Management Systems
5901 North 33rd St.
McAllen, TX  78504-5055
rms@hiline.net